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Low-dimensional van der Waals materials for linear-polarization-sensitive photodetection: materials, polarizing strategies and applications
doi: 10.1088/2752-5724/acf9ba
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Abstract: Detecting light from a wealth of physical degrees of freedom (e.g. wavelength, intensity, polarization state, phase, etc) enables the acquirement of more comprehensive information. In the past two decades, low-dimensional van der Waals materials (vdWMs) have established themselves as transformative building blocks toward lensless polarization optoelectronics, which is highly beneficial for optoelectronic system miniaturization. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the recent development of low-dimensional vdWM polarized photodetectors. To begin with, the exploitation of pristine 1D/2D vdWMs with immanent in-plane anisotropy and related heterostructures for filterless polarization-sensitive photodetectors is introduced. Then, we have systematically epitomized the various strategies to induce polarization photosensitivity and enhance the degree of anisotropy for low-dimensional vdWM photodetectors, including quantum tailoring, construction of core-shell structures, rolling engineering, ferroelectric regulation, strain engineering, etc, with emphasis on the fundamental physical principles. Following that, the ingenious optoelectronic applications based on the low-dimensional vdWM polarized photodetectors, including multiplexing optical communications and enhanced-contrast imaging, have been presented. In the end, the current challenges along with the future prospects of this burgeoning research field have been underscored. On the whole, the review depicts a fascinating landscape for the next-generation high-integration multifunctional optoelectronic systems.
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Figure 1. Crystal structures of some typical 1D vdWMs. (a) Sb2S3. (b) Te. (c) Nb2Pd3Se8. (d) MoI3. (e) Se. (f) (TaSe4)2I. The members from the 1D vdWM family typically possess strong covalent bonds in only one direction, while being combined together by weak covalent/ionic bonds or van der Waals interactions in the other two directions.
Figure 2. (a) Schematic diagrams of the crystal structure of Bi2S3 viewed from various perspectives. (b) Calculated absorbance of Bi2S3 along a-axis (green line) and b-axis (blue line). (c) The corresponding linear dichroic ratio as a function of wavelength of the Bi2S3 crystal deduced from the absorbance. (d)-(e) Polar plots of the polarization angle-resolved photocurrent of the Bi2S3 nanowire device under 808 and 532 nm illuminations, respectively. The solid lines are the fitting results using the sinusoidal function. Reproduced from [81]. CC BY 4.0.
Figure 3. Crystal structures of some typical low-symmetry 2D vdWMs. (a) ReSe2. (b) GeSe. (c) ReS2. (d) Black phosphorus. (e) PdPS. (f) GeS2.
Figure 4. (a) Side view and (b) top view of the crystal structure of GeSe2. (c) Polarization angle-resolved Raman spectra of a GeSe2 nanosheet. (d) Theoretically calculated light absorption spectra along the x direction (blue line) and the y direction (red line). (e) Schematic diagram of the GeSe2 nanosheet photodetector and the measurement configuration for evaluating polarized photosensitivity. (f) Polar plot of the polarization angle-resolved photocurrent in a normalized way. Reprinted with permission from [120]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society.
Figure 5. (a)-(c) Linear dichroic ratio as a function of the channel width upon 405, 532, and 635 nm illuminations. (d)-(f) Linear dichroic ratio as a function of the channel height upon 405, 532, and 635 nm illuminations. (g)-(i) Anisotropic ratios of ACS (purple columns) and SCS (blue columns) as a function of the width/height of the Bi2S3 nanowire upon 405 nm, 532 nm, and 635 nm excitations. Reproduced from [97] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 6. (a) Schematic illustration of the SbI3/Sb2O3 core-shell heterojunction. The bottom images present the crystal structures of SbI3 (left) and Sb2O3 (right). (b) The theoretical absorbance curves along a-axis (solid lines) and b-axis (dashed lines) of the SbI3/Sb2O3 heterostructure, SbI3, and Sb2O3, respectively. (c) The corresponding linear dichroic ratio as a function of wavelength of the SbI3/Sb2O3 core-shell heterostructures (blue line), SbI3 (red line), and Sb2O3 (orange line). (d) Polar plots of the polarization angle dependent photocurrent upon 450 nm (blue stars) and 532 nm (red stars) illuminations. The blue and red lines are fitting curves by the function of Iph = Ipx cos2(
+ ) + Ipysin2( + ). (e) Polarization angle dependent photocurrent upon 450 and 532 nm illuminations in an orthogonal coordinate. [185] John Wiley & Sons. © 2020 WILEYVCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. 
Figure 7. (a) Schematic diagram of a 3D MoS2 phototransistor for polarization-discriminating photodetection. The polarization angle (
) is defined as the angle between the polarization direction of linearly polarized incident light and the axial direction of the MoS2 roll. (b) Normalized polarization angle dependent photocurrent of a 3D MoS2 phototransistor under different source-drain voltages, where Iph,0 represents the photocurrent measured under the polarization angle of 0. (c) The corresponding polar plots of the data in (b). (d) Responsivity as a function of light power density of 2D MoS2 photodetector (black line) and 3D MoS2 photodetectors with one winding (blue line) and two windings (red line). (e) The spacial distribution of the electric field magnitude in vicinity of a 3D MoS2 roll with one rolled-up winding under 395 nm illumination. (f) The average normalized electric field magnitude (E3D/E0) at the surface of 3D MoS2 rolls with various rolled-up windings. Reproduced from [195]. CC BY 4.0. 
Figure 8. (a) Output characteristics of the pristine (orange line) and polarized (blue line) black phosphorus phototransistors. The inset presents the device structure. (b) Normalized photocurrent of the device at the fresh (blue dots) and polarized (orange dots) states as a function of the polarization angle upon 520 (top panel) and 1450 (bottom panel) nm illuminations, respectively. (c) Schematic of black phosphorus in-plane p-n homojunction defined by ferroelectric domains. (d) Normalized photocurrent of the black phosphorus in-plane p-n homojunction as a function of the polarization angle upon 520 and 1450 nm illuminations, respectively. Polarization ratio (PR) is defined as the ratio of the maximum photocurrent to the minimum photocurrent. (e) Responsivity and PR of black phosphorus in-plane p-n homojunction defined by ferroelectric domains compared with black phosphorus, black phosphorus homojunctions defined by other methods, 2D heterojunctions, nanowires, and other anisotropic materials, showing that this work is at the leading level among most of the previously reported polarization photodetectors. Reproduced from [208]. CC BY 4.0.
Figure 9. (a) Comparison of the in-plane crystal structures of pristine MoS2 and MoS2 upon external tensile strain. (b) The Brillouin cells of pristine MoS2 and MoS2 upon external tensile strain. (c) Polarization angle-resolved photocurrent of a MoS2 photodetector under various strain values. Reprinted from [235], © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. (d) Schematic diagram of the WSe2/CrOCl photodetector. (e) Photoswitching curves of the WSe2/CrOCl device under 532 nm illuminations with different polarization angles. (f) Polar plot of the photocurrent as function of polarization angle under 532 nm illumination. [236] John Wiley & Sons.© 2022 WileyVCH GmbH.
Figure 10. (a) Optical image and SEM images of a black phosphorus photodetector integrating a bowtie aperture array. (b) Polarization ratio as a function of light power of black phosphorus photodetectors with and without bowtie apertures upon 633 and 1550 nm illuminations. (c) Computed absorption as a function of wavelength along the armchair and zigzag directions of black phosphorus integrated with bowtie apertures. (d) Top view of the electric field distribution in vicinity of a bowtie aperture under illuminations along the armchair (left) and zigzag (right) directions, respectively. Reprinted with permission from [252]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society. (e) Schematic depiction of a graphene phototransistor with integrated plasmonic cavity. (f) Polarization angle dependent photoresponse in a polar plot of the graphene phototransistor integrated with plasmonic cavity under 1550 nm illumination. Reprinted from [253], with the permission of AIP Publishing. (g) 3D schematic diagram of a metasurface-mediated graphene photodetector. (h) Polarization angle dependent photovoltage of graphene photodetectors with metasurfaces of various geometries. Reproduced from [257]. CC BY 4.0. (i) Schematic illustration depicting the graphene photodetector integrated with monolithic metamaterial. (j) Polarization angle dependent photovoltage upon illuminations with frequencies of 2.52 and 3.11 THz. Reprinted with permission from [259]. Copyright (2022) American Chemical Society.
Figure 11. (a) Schematic diagram depicting the fabrication process of the GeSe sub-wavelength array photodetector and the measurement configuration. (b) Linear dichroic ratios of the pristine GeSe photodetector and the GeSe sub-wavelength array photodetector upon illuminations with various wavelengths. (c) Linear dichroic ratio as a function of period width with a series of nanostrip width/period width ratios. Calculated electric field intensity distribution of light of (d) the pristine GeSe flake and (e) the GeSe sub-wavelength array upon 800 nm irradiation. Reprinted from [264],© 2023 Science China Press. Published by Elsevier B.V. and Science China Press. All rights reserved.
Figure 12. (a) Schematic diagram illustrating the principle of multiplexing optical communications based on a polarization-discriminating Bi2S3 nanowire photodetector. (b) Schematic diagram of the input light intensity signal and the corresponding polarization state signal from the signal output end. The
symbol represents perpendicular polarization, and the symbol represents parallel polarization. The weak light is denoted by 0’, and the strong light is denoted by 1’. (c) Output current of the Bi2S3 nanowire photodetector when 10011100’ and 00110110’ are transmitted synchronously through light intensity channel and polarization state channel, respectively. (d) The theoretical decoupled binary signal extracted from the output current in (c). Reproduced from [97] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. 
Figure 14. Contrast-enhanced polarization imaging based on Te photodetectors. (a) Schematic illustration of the imaging configuration based on a Te photodetector. (b) Schematic of the polarization imaging mechanism for extract the degree of linear polarization (DoLP). (c) Normalized imaging contrast of S0 and DoLP by using various devices as light-sensing units. (d) Imaging DoLP result using the nonpolarized 2H-MoTe2 device upon 1.55 m illumination. (e)-(f) Imaging DoLP results using the Te photodetector upon 1.55 and 2.3 m illuminations, respectively. Reproduced from [277]. CC BY 4.0.
Table 1. A summary of the performance metrics of polarized photodetectors built of 1D vdWMs.
Devices R (A W-1) EQE (%) D (Jones) Rise/decay time Dichroic ratio References CNTa 28 mV/Wb N. A.c 4.69 103 N. A./32 s 2 [94] CNT 0.1 V/Wb N. A. N. A. N. A. 2 [85] CNT N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 5.06 [86] CNT 0.33 V/Wb 0.8 4.33 106 N. A. 16.4 [87] CNT 0.2925 N. A. N. A. 42 ms/34 ms 2 [88] Te 6650 N. A. 1.23 1012 31.7 s/25.5 s 5.8 [89] Te/MoSe2 2.106 645 2.91 1013 25 ms/22 ms 16.39 [90] Te/WS2 27.8 N. A. 9.5 1012 19.3 ms/17.6 ms 2.1 [91] WS2/Te 402 N. A. 9.28 1013 1.7 ms/3.2 ms 2.5 [84] Te 0.17 N. A. 4 109 33 ms/33 ms 2.8 [82] Te 327 26221 6.08 107 22 ms/23 ms 2.05 [93] Bi2S3 32 N. A. 4.36 1011 20 ms/10 ms 1.9 [81] Bi2S3 4.21 981.76 1.64 1010 12.25 ms/12.25 ms 1.79 [96] Bi2S3 23760 5.55 106 3.68 1013 1 ms/4.5 ms 2.4 [97] Sb2S3 0.3434 N. A. N. A. 0.47 ms/0.68 ms 2.54 [98] Sb2Se3 5.1 N. A. 4.4 109 32 ms/5 ms 1.63 [99] Sb2Se3 3.61 841.24 2.36 1011 30 ms/32 ms 1.71 [100] Sb2Se3/GaN 0.012 N. A. 5 1010 74 ms/75 ms 1.37 [83] Sb2Se3 4.39 655 9.63 1010 27 ms/27 ms 3.95 [101] SnIISnIVS3 290.5 8.4 104 5.2 1010 <0.4 s/< 0.2 s 1.3 [102] BiSeI 5.88 1.3 103 2.76 108 0.11 ms/0.17 ms 1.77 [63] Nb2Pd3Se8 2.74 10-3 N. A. 4.73 106 60 ms/55 ms 1.42 [103] MoS2/Ta2Pd3Se8 2.66 970 3.5 108 1.3 s/2.2 s 4.79 [104] CNT: carbon nanotube. The output signals of these devices are photovoltage. N. A.: not applicable. 
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Table 2. A summary of the performance metrics of polarized photodetectors built of 2D vdWMs with in-plane anisotropy.
Devices R (A/W) EQE (%) D (Jones) Rise/decay time Dichroic ratio References BP 1.43 52 8.67 108 1.8 ns/1.68 ns 25 [125] Black arsenic 0.44 56 N. A. N. A. 2.3 [126] b-AsPa 0.190 N. A.b N. A. N. A. 14 [127] BP/ReS2 1.8 10-3 0.14 N. A. N. A. 6.44 [128] HgCdTe/BP 0.168 N. A. 7.93 1010 0.15 ms/0.11 ms 1.45 [129] b-AsP/WS2/b-AsP 7.2 10-4 N. A. >107 0.2 ms/0.2 ms 55 [71] MoTe2 4 10-4 N. A. 1.07 108 31.7 s/N. A. 2.72 [130] WTe2 N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 1.1 [131] MoTe2/ReS2 0.54 N. A. 1.32 109 2.4 s/3 s 1.03 [132] 2H-MoTe2/1T-MoTe2/SnSe2 0.06423 N. A. 2.2 1011 9 ms/14 ms 2.02 [133] MoTe2/WS2/MoTe2 1.06 N. A. 5.64 1011 48 s/50 s 13 [134] TiS3 2500 N. A. N. A. N. A. 4 [135] ZrS3 5.25 N. A. 4.2 109 117 s/590 s 1.67 [136] ZrSe3 0.0119 N. A. 5.24 106 2.8 s/30 s 1.1 [137] NbS3 0.0247 N. A. 5.7 108 11.6 s/9.4 s 3.95 [138] TiS3/Si 0.0348 N. A. 1.04 1010 <0.02 s 4.56 [139] TiS3/MoS2 48666 N. A. 4.96 1014 0.4 s/0.4 s 1.17 [140] Nb1-xTixS3 2978 N. A. 3.23 1013 0.15 s/0.5 s 1.75 [141] HfTe5 17 V/Wc N. A. 2.7 108 0.749 ms/N. A. 1.2 [142] -InSe 194 N. A. 1.45 1012 620 s/540 s 5.66 [143] -InSe 127 4 104 2.73 1011 N. A. 2.07 [144] GeAs/InSe 1.2 N. A. 2 1011 25 ms/25 ms 18 [123] SiP 2.02 N. A. 1.88 1010 N. A. 1.4 [145] SiP2 0.31 105 1.28 1012 3 ms/3.5 ms 1.6 [146] SiAs 0.016 1.2 103 1 1010 <1 s/< 1 s 5.3 [147] GeAs N. A. N. A. N. A. 52 ms/55 ms 4.4 [148] GeAs2 N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 2 [149] GeAs/WS2 0.509 99.8 1.08 1012 1.5 ms/1.3 ms 4.5 [150] GeS N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 1.45 [152] GeS2 N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 2.1 [121] GeSe 1.6 105 3.9 107 2.9 1013 0.28 s/0.51 s 1.3 [153] GeSe2 N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 3.4 [120] SnS 310.5 8.56 104 N. A. 0.45 s/3.14 s 1.17 [154] SnSe 9.27 2077 4.08 1010 0.28 s/0.286 s 2.31 [155] GeSe/MoS2 0.105 24.2 1.46 1010 0.11 s/0.75 s 2.95 [156] ReS2 3.59 103 N. A. N. A. N. A. 4.15 [157] PdSe2 1.3 10-3 N. A 2.55 107 4 s/14 s 1.3 [158] PdSe2/FA1-xCsxPbI3 0.313 52.2 2.72 1013 3.5 s/4 s 6.04 [159] WS2/ReS2 1.85 10-3 N. A. N. A. 1.3 ms/0.85 ms 1.76 [160] ReS2/ReSe2 126.56 N. A. 3.16 1011 6 s/8.9 s 2 [161] WSe2/ReSe2 0.57 N. A. 109 2 s/2.5 s 2 [162] GaSe/ReS2 0.17 10 5 109 0.261 s/0.274 s 3.03 [163] GaAs/ReS2 6.86 1639 1.2 109 20 s/30 s 1.71 [164] TaIrTe4 3.4 10-4 N. A. 2.7 107 25.73 s/N. A. 1.88 [165] NbOI2 5.92 N. A. N. A. 3 s/4 s 1.7 [72] Ta2NiSe5 44 N. A. 1.2 1012 98 ms/82 ms 3.24 [166] CrPS4 1.37 10-7 N. A. 5.82 107 <2 s/ < 2 s 1.33 [167] PdPS 1.18 103 N. A. 4.4 1011 1.4 ms/1.2 ms 3.7 [168] ZrGeTe4 0.62565 145.9 1.73 107 4 ms/8 ms 2.04 [169] MnBi2Te4 0.76 N. A. N. A. 1 s/1.3 s >30 [73] Ta2NiS5 2.5 10-3 N. A. N. A. 31.1 s/N. A. 1.31 [170] NbIrTe4 9.48 N. A. N. A. 0.46 s/7.2 s 14.1 [171] TaIrTe4/WSe2 9.1 2776 3.89 1012 22.5 ms/25.1 ms 1.75 [172] WSe2/TaIrTe4/MoS2 1.48 N. A. 2.39 1011 12.44 ms/16.52 ms 9.1 [173] b-AsP: Black arsenic phosphorus. N. A.: not applicable. The output signals of these devices are photovoltage.
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Table 3. A summary of the performance metrics of low-dimensional vdWM polarized photodetectors integrated with various polarization strategies.
Devices R (A/W) EQE (%) D (Jones) Rise/decay time Dichroic ratio References Bi2S3 nanowire 23760 5.55 106 3.68 1013 1 ms/4.5 ms 2.4 [97] Core-shell SbI3/Sb2O3 heterostructure 1.11 10-3 0.307 1.8 109 19.61 ms/20.57 ms 3.14 [185] 3D MoS2 23.8 7486 N. A.a 0.4 s/0.04 s 1.64 [195] BP homojunction defined by ferroelectric domains 1.06 90.8 1.27 1011 0.361 ms/0.362 ms 288 [208] Strained MoS2 nanosheet 3.6 N. A. 2 1011 0.4 ms/0.7 ms 2.29 [235] MoS2/CrOCl heterostructure N. A. N. A. N. A. N. A. 1.23 [239] WSe2/CrOCl heterostructure 5.28 N. A. N. A. <0.4 ms 1.27 [236] BP with bowtie Ti/Au antennas 0.0142 N. A. N. A. <90 s 8.7 [252] MoS2 with elliptical Au antennas 26 N. A. N. A. N. A. 1.45 [254] Metamaterial-integrated graphene 3.16 V/Wb N. A. N. A. 25 ms/N. A. 115 [259] Graphene on Au nanogratings 2.95 10-3 N. A. 2.8 106 39 ms/32.1 ms 6.65 [256] GeSe-based SWA 30 N. A. N. A. N. A. 18 [264] N. A.: not applicable. The output signals of these devices are photovoltage.
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