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Recent advances of metal fluoride compounds cathode materials for lithium ion batteries: a review
doi: 10.1088/2752-5724/ad4572
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Abstract: AbstractAs the most successful new energy storage device developed in recent decades, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are ubiquitous in the modern society. However, current commercial LIBs comprising mainly intercalated cathode materials are limited by the theoretical energy density which cannot meet the high storing energy demanded by renewable applications. Compared to intercalation-type cathode materials, low-cost conversion-type cathode materials with a high theoretical specific capacity are expected to boost the overall energy of LIBs. Among the different conversion cathode materials, metal fluorides have become a popular research subject for their environmental friendliness, low toxicity, wide voltage range, and high theoretical specific capacity. In this review, we compare the energy storage performance of intercalation and conversion cathode materials based on thermodynamic calculation and summarize the main challenges. The common conversion-type cathode materials are described and their respective reaction mechanisms are discussed. In particular, the structural flaws and corresponding solutions and strategies are described. Finally, we discussed the prospective of metal fluorides and other conversion cathode materials to guide further research in this important field.
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Key words:
- lithium-ion batteries /
- metal fluorides /
- cathode materials /
- conversion materials
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Figure 1. (a) Theoretical operating voltages and capacities of some intercalation and conversion LIB cathode materials. (b) Theoretical gravimetric energy densities. (c) Theoretical volumetric energy densities. (d) Defects of metal fluorides as electrode materials and representative studies.
Figure 2. Overpotentials in conversion-type cathode materials showing FeF3 as an example. Reprinted from [40], © 2019 Elsevier Inc.
Figure 3. (a) Crystal structure of FeF2. (b) Schematic diagram of the conversion of FeF2 into a bicontinuous network of Fe nanoparticles and LiF during the first lithiation. (c)-(f) Morphology and spatial distribution of the phases in the initial FeF2-C nanocomposite electrode: (c) BF TEM and (d) Elemental maps of C (blue) and FeF2 (yellow). (e) BF TEM and (f) Elemental maps of Fe (green) and LiF (red). Reprinted with permission from [54]. Copyright (2011) American Chemical Society. (g) Schematic illustration of the diffusion of the reaction front in a single FeF2 particle, using the ‘layer-by-layer’ reaction as the mechanism. Reproduced from [82], with permission from Springer Nature.
Figure 4. (a) Crystal structure of FeF3. (b) Simplified Li-Fe-F ternary phase diagram and reaction paths of FeF3-FeF2 system in different states. Reproduced from [41], with permission from Springer Nature.
Figure 5. Crystal structure of FeFx · mH2O: (a) HTB-FeF3 · 0.33H2O. (b) FeF3 · 0.5H2O. (c) Simplified diagram of FeF3·0.5H2O cross-sectional tetrahedral. Reprinted with permission from [98]. Copyright (2013) American Chemical Society. (d) FeF3 · 3H2O and (e) projection of FeF3 · 3H2O along the [001] direction. Reprinted from [89], Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Figure 6. (a) Rutile FeF2 (P42/mnm) in projection along [001]. (b) Fe octahedral structure in FeOF, Fe deviates from the central position tending to move toward the O atoms. (c) Nonprimitive cell of the lowest energy FeOF structure. Lowest-energy superstructures of (d) FeOF. (e) Li0.25FeOF. (f) Li0.5FeOF. and (g) Li0.75FeOF in the [001] projection. Reprinted figure with permission from [108], Copyright (2013) by the American Physical Society. (h) Structure of highly distorted octahedral coordination of CuF2. Reprinted from [109], Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. (i) Crystal structure of CuF2 in the monoclinic unit cell. Reprinted from [110], Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. (j) Electrochemical curves of CuF2 and EDS elemental maps of Li metal before and after charging CuF2 to 4.5 V. Reprinted with permission from [111]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical Society.
Figure 7. (a) Preparation process of CuF2-SA electrode materials. (b) Mechanism of selective permeation and inhibition of copper dissolution in the Cu-SA layer. (c) Cross-linking effect and coordination structure between Cu2+ and SA. [114] John Wiley & Sons. © 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 8. (a) Schematic diagram of the formation of hydrated iron-based fluorides from BMIMBF4 ionic liquid and Fe(NO3)3 · 9H2O. [139] John Wiley & Sons. Copyright © 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (b) Ferrofluoride-converted cathode materials prepared by deep eutectic solvent method and electrochemical performance test. Reprinted from [141], © 2022 Science Press and Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Figure 9. (a) Flow diagram of the preparation of pomegranate-like nanostructured TM (TM = FeCo, FeNi)/LiF/C nanocomposites. (b)-(d) Microscopic images of the as-synthesized FeCo/LiF/C nanocomposites. (e) HAADF-STEM image and EDS maps of FeCo/LiF/C composites. Reprinted with permission from [142]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society.
Figure 10. Hexagonal cavities in (a) pure FeF3 · 0.33H2O and (b) Fe0.92Mn0.08F3 · 0.33H2O(III). (c) Models of pure FeF3 · 0.33H2O and Mn-doped FeF3 · 0.33H2O and cycling tests. Reprinted with permission from [165]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical Society.
Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of Ni-doped FeF3 · 0.33H2O and EDS maps of Fe0.92Ni0.08F3 · 0.33H2O. Reprinted with permission from [168]. Copyright (2020) American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic diagram showing the synthesis of Nb-FeF3 · 0.33H2O@C. (c)-(e) Morphology and elemental distributions of Fe0.97Nb0.03F3 · 0.33H2O@C: (c) FE-SEM. (d) TEM. (e) EDS maps of Fe, C, F, and Nb. [158] John Wiley & Sons. © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 12. (a) Schematic and galvanostatic charging-discharging curves of FeF3 · 0.33H2O substituted by O atoms. (b)-(d) Local configureuration and energy band structure of cathode materials based on TMF3 material for cation-anion redox reaction. (b) TMF3. (c) O-doped TMF3. (d) TMn+ (n = 2, 3) cationic and On- (n = 1, 2) redox reaction. Reprinted with permission from [173]. Copyright (2019) American Chemical Society.
Figure 13. (a) and (b) Synthesis of CVD reactions at different temperatures. (c)-(e) Surface morphologies of FeF2 particles with different carbon deposition times. (f) and (g) Cycle test of FE materials at different electrolyte concentrations. [183] John Wiley & Sons. © 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Figure 14. (a) Schematic illustration of the preparation of FeF3 · 0.33H2O@CNS nanocomposites. (b) SEM images of the FeF3 · 0.33H2O@CNS nanocomposites. Reproduced from [200] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Figure 16. (a) Schematic of the preparation of FeF3 · 0.33H2O/rGO. (b) TEM images of FeF3 · 0·33H2O/rGO. Reprinted with permission from [197]. Copyright (2018) American Chemical Society. (c) Schematic illustration of the formation of the GCFF composite. (d) TEM image of GCFF. Reprinted from [201], © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. (e) Schematic of the electron/Li+ diffusion pathways of FeF3 · 0.33H2O (FF), reduction of graphene oxide-loaded FeF3 · 0.33H2O (FF@rGO), and 3D reduced graphene oxide-loaded FeF3 · 0.33H2O (FF@3DrGO). Reproduced from [202]. © IOP Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved.
Figure 17. (a) Schematic showing the fabrication of free-standing FeF3-C NFs cathodes. (b) Comparison of conventional cathodes and flexible, free-standing cathodes. [210] John Wiley & Sons.© 2018 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (c) SEM picture of FFNA. (d) SEM picture of GQDs@FFNA. (e) AFM image of GQDs. Reprinted from [230], © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Figure 18. (a) Schematic of the preparation of the 3D honeycomb metal fluoride@carbon composite. (b) and (c) SEM images of FeC3@C. (d) and (e) SEM images of FeF3@C. [144] John Wiley & Sons. © 2019 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. (f) Schematic synthesis of honeycomb FeF3@C. (g) Electrochemical results of honeycomb FeF3@C tested as a full cell. Reprinted from [233], © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Figure 19. (a) Schematic of the synthesis of the MOF-shape CoF2@C nanocomposite. (b) SEM of the Co-MOF-67; (c) SEM of the Co@C composites. (d) and (e) TEM of the Co@C composite. (f) HR-TEM of CoF2@C. Reprinted with permission from [234]. Copyright (2021) American Chemical Society.
Table 1. Theoretical capacity, operating voltage, band gap, volume expansion, voltage hysteresis, and stability in electrolytes of common metal fluorides.
Materials Theoretical capacity (mAh g-1) Theoretical potential (V) Band gap (eV) Theoretical volume expansion (%) Voltage hysteresis (V vs. Li) Stability in the electrolyte FeF2 571 2.66 1.69 16.7 0.5-1 Cation dissolution FeF3 712 2.74 3.11 25.6 0.8-2.0 Cation dissolution CoF2 553 2.80 4.44 21 0.8-2.0 Cation dissolution CuF2 527 3.55 Mott insulator 11.6 0.8-1.0 Cation dissolution NiF2 554 2.96 4.91 28.3 1.0-2.0 Cation dissolution BiF3 302 3.18 Orthorhombic 4.68 Hexagonal 5.07 1.76 0.4-1.5 Cation dissolution 
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Table 2. Summary of electrochemical properties of metal fluorides synthesized using different fluorine sources.
Fluoride source Cathode materials Current density (mA g-1) Capacity (mAh g-1) Cycle number Capacity retention (%) References NF3 FeF3@C 480 >200 1000 84.6 [144] NH4F C/FeOF/FeF3 20 438.3 50 <50 [145] FeF3@mesoporous carbon 142 640 50 90 [146] HF FeF3 · 0.33H2O 20 438.9 160 45.4 [92] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/C 237 276.4 50 73 [147] CFX FeF2/C 20 442 20 <50 [44] NH4HF2 FeF3 · 0.33H2O 20 173.5 100 96.2 [149] FeF3/C 50 346.25 40 46.7 [150] H2SiF6 FeOF-rGO 20 283.2 100 77.2 [104] CoF2-CNTs 100 360 200 93 [121] BMIMBF4 Fe1.9F4.75 · 0.95H2O 14 175 100 83 [154] Nb-FeF3 · 0.33H2O/C 40 540.7 100 64.4 [158] PTFE FeF3 11.75 210 50 70 [156] TFA FeF3 1000 155 100 88 [157] CF3CCH2CCF3 FeF2 20 590 25 <50 [78] CoF2 20 535 25 <50
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Table 3. A mini-summary of electrochemical properties of different transition metal fluoride composites.
Cathode materials Current density (mA g-1) Capacity (mAh g-1) Cycle number Capacity retention (%) References TiF3/C 38 727 40 55 [131] MnF2/CNTs 57.7 461 100 84 [117] MnF2/MWCNT 57.7 600 100 80 [116] CoF2/CNTs 100 360 200 93 [121] CoF2/C 110 >400 300 81.9 [125] NiF2/porous carbon 100 >700 20 <50 [118] Fe/LiF/C 25 316 50 95 [187] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/CNT/graphene 47.4 193.1 50 85.48 [188] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/N-doped CNTs 40 219.9 100 73.1 [189] FeF3 ⋅ 0.33H2O/graphitized carbon 1000 129 300 87 [190] FeF2/CMK-3 500 529 100 91 [191] FeF3/C 1200 206 1000 84.1 [144] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/CMK-3 10 000 78 100 97 [192] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/C 200 >160 50 95 [195] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/carbon nanosheet 237 175 200 97.2 [200] FeF3 ⋅ 0.33H2O porous graphene/CNTs 200 162 100 74.1 [201] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/rGO 20 700 30 <50 [93] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/rGO 100 177.8 100 96.7 [197] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/rGO 100 >175 100 98 [198] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/3DrGO 281.25 151.4 1400 66.2 [202] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/NSPC 40 181.4 100 90.7 [199] FeF3/Ni3(NO3)2(NH3)6 71 426 400 70 [203] FeOF/TiO2 100 228 300 92 [204] FeF3/C/LiF 40 400 50 57 [206] FeF2/LiF 10 225 20 >80 [207] FeF3 · 0.33H2O/Ag/C 23.7 168.2 50 76.3 [208] CoF2/Fe2O3 100 >300 400 <60 [127]
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