doi:10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf

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The issues on the commercialization of perovskite solar cells

doi: 10.1088/2752-5724/ad37cf

1.
Center for Excellence in Nanoscience (CAS), Key Laboratory of Nanosystem and Hierarchical Fabrication (CAS), National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, People’s Republic of China
2.
Institute of New Energy Technology, College of Information Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, People’s Republic of China
3.
Institute of Polymers and Energy Chemistry (IPEC), Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, People’s Republic of China
4.
School of Information Science and Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People’s Republic of China
5.
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, People’s Republic of China
6.
School of Physical Science and Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, People’s Republic of China
7.
Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
8.
Institute of optoelectronics, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, People’s Republic of China
9.
College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People’s Republic of China
10.
School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People’s Republic of China
11.
State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, Department of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People’s Republic of China
12.
College of Biophotonics, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, People’s Republic of China
13.
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People’s Republic of China
14.
School of Physics and Electronics, Central South University, Changsha 410083, People’s Republic of China
15.
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710119, People’s Republic of China
16.
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, People’s Republic of China
17.
Microquanta semiconductor, Hangzhou 311121, People’s Republic of China

More Information

Corresponding author: E-mail: lsliao@suda.edu.cn; E-mail: lli@suda.edu.cn; E-mail: fei_zhang@tju.edu.cn; E-mail: yqzhan@fudan.edu.cn; E-mail: ywchen@ncu.edu.cn; E-mail: yaohuamai@jnu.edu.cn; E-mail: ding@nanoctr.cn

摘要

Abstract: AbstractPerovskite solar cells have aroused a worldwide research upsurge in recent years due to their soaring photovoltaic performance, ease of solution processing, and low cost. The power conversion efficiency record is constantly being broken and has recently reached 26.1% in the lab, which is comparable to the established photovoltaic technologies such as crystalline silicon, copper indium gallium selenide and cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cells. Currently, perovskite solar cells are standing at the entrance of industrialization, where huge opportunities and risks coexist. However, towards commercialization, challenges of up-scaling, stability and lead toxicity still remain, the proper handling of which could potentially lead to the widespread adoption of perovskite solar cells as a low-cost and efficient source of renewable energy. This review gives a holistic analysis of the path towards commercialization for perovskite solar cells. A comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art level for perovskite solar cells and modules will be introduced first, with respect to the module efficiency, stability and current status of industrialization. We will then discuss the challenges that get in the way of commercialization and the corresponding strategies to address them, involving the upscaling, the stability and the lead toxicity issue. Insights into the future direction of commercialization of perovskite photovoltaics was also provided, including the flexible perovskite cells and modules and perovskite indoor photovoltaics. Finally, the future perspectives towards commercialization are put forward.
- commercializations /
- perovskite solar cells /
- state-of-the-art level /
- challenges and perspectives /
- indoor photovoltaics
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Figure 1. The path towards commercialization, in terms of (a) current status and (b) promising applications of commercialization.

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Figure 2. Picture of 100 kW perovskite grid-connected solar farm from Micoquanta.

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Figure 3. Fabrication method, structure design and advances of large-area perovskite solar modules. (a) Efficiency record of PSMs obtained by various deposition methods. (b) Advanced strategies for optimizing the quality of perovskite film. (c) The configuration and cross-section view of PSMs. (d) Illustration of the total power loss as function of the active-area width for modules with various dead-area widths. (e) Three cell designs. Design A: cell without metal grids; Design B: cell with parallel metal bus bars; Design C: cell with parallel metal bus bars and fingers, where gold arrows represent the direction of current flow through the front electrodes.

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Figure 4. (a) Picture of the fabricated films and the schematic diagram of modules with 9 subcells in series. Reproduced from [27], with permission from Springer Nature. (b) Air-knife-assisted bar-coating and the sketch of precursor front. Reprinted from [29],© 2021 Elsevier Inc. (c) Slot-die printing with low-pressure dry air blowing. The inset is a picture of a 20 × 20 cm² perovskite film. (d) Illustration of crystal growth process with and without NMP. From [36]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. (e) Illustration of the formation mechanism of voids at buried interface. From [49]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.

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Figure 5. Flowchart of official PV module stability test for IEC 61 215 standard. Important stability tests for PSCs are marked in green. STC, standard test condition; NMOT, nominal module operating temperature. [53].

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Figure 6. Schematic diagram to show the factors that influence the stability of PSCs: (a) light, (b) heat, (c) ambient environment and (d) radiation. Lattice expansion. From [56]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Lattice expansion and phase transition. Reprinted with permission from [57]. Copyright (2016) American Chemical Society. Glass discoloration. Reprinted with permission from [58]. Copyright (2020) American Chemical Society.

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Figure 7. (a) The screening procedure for stable perovskite composition using the high-throughput screening system. The percentage point means the ratio passing the last round of screening. (b) The T₈₀ lifetimes for the perovskites aged at 65 °C under 100 mW cm⁻² metal-halide light illumination in N₂-filled atmosphere. (c) T₈₀ lifetime statistics for mixed-cation perovskites with different Br concentrations. Reproduced from [101], with permission from Springer Nature.

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Figure 8. (a) The mechanism for 5-AVA enhancing the stability of MA-based PSCs. (b) Long-term MPP tracking for (5-AVA)_xMA_1−xPbI₃ PSC. Reprinted from [7],© 2020 Elsevier Inc. (c) Schematics of tailoring the 2D/3D heterostructure by tuning the annealing conditions. TA represents for thermal annealing at 100 °C, and RT represents for room-temperature process. From [54]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. (d) Device structure of the inverted PSC with FcTc₂ as interface layer and the molecular dynamics simulations of the interaction between perovskite and FcTc₂. (e) Stability tests including long-term operational stability under AM 1.5 G illumination, damp-heat test and thermal cycling test. From [55]. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.

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Figure 9. (a) Schematic of four encapsulation methods (b) Attacked perovskite solar modules with different encapsulation methods after the first water dripping test (top row), and after being heated at 45 °C for 4 h and the second water dripping test (bottom row). Reproduced from [161], with permission from Springer Nature. (c) Device structure for perovskite solar cell with CER encapsulation layer. (d) Schematic of Pb leakage prevention via CER. Reproduced from [163], with permission from Springer Nature. (e) Device structure of perovskite solar cells with 2D conjugated MOF as electron extraction layer and the proposed mechanism for Pb leakage prevention. Reproduced from [164], with permission from Springer Nature. (f) Device structure of perovskite solar cells with Pb absorbing materials DMDP and EDTMP-PEO on the front and back sides respectively. (g) Water soaking test for damaged PSCs with and without Pb-absorbing materials at RT and 50 °C respectively. Reproduced from [165], with permission from Springer Nature. (h) Roadmap for recycling perovskite solar modules. Reproduced from [166]. CC BY 4.0.

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Figure 10. (a) Design strategy of flexible perovskite solar cells; (b) pprospects for wearable perovskite photovoltaics [201]. John Wiley & Sons. © 2018 The Authors. Published by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

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Figure 11. (a) Structure of F-PSC inspired by vertebrae, and (b) the application as wearable power sources. Reproduced from [235]. CC BY 4.0. (c) The schematics for potassium interfacial passivation. Reproduced from [238]. CC BY 4.0. (d) Photograph of fully R2R gravure-printed PSCs. (e) Schematics of R2R processing procedure for F-PSMs. Reproduced from [239]. CC BY 4.0.

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Table 1. Confirmed record efficiency results of perovskite-related photovoltaics, [5, 6, 18] measured under the global AM1.5 spectrum (1000 W m⁻²) at 25 °C (IEC 60 904-3: 2008 or ASTM G-173-03 global).

Classification	Efficiency (%)	Area (cm²)	Organization
Perovskite (cell)	26.1 ± 0.6	0.05127 (da)	U. of Science and Technology of China
Perovskite (cell)	24.67	1.0053 (ap)	Shenzhen Infinite Solar Tech.
Perovskite (minimodule)	22.4 ± 0.5	26.02 (da)	EPFLSion/NCEPU, 8 cells
Perovskite (module)	18.6 ± 0.7	809.9 (da)	UtmoLight (39 cells)
Perovskite/Si	33.7 ± 1.1	1.0035 (da)	KAUST, 2-term.
Perovskite/Si (large)	28.6 ± 1.4	258.14 (t)	Oxford PV, 2-term.
Perovskite/CIGS	24.2 ± 0.7	1.045 (da)	HZB, 2-terminal
Perovskite/perovskite	29.1 ± 0.5	0.0489 (da)	Nanjing U, 2-term.
Perovskite/perovskite (minimodule)	24.5 ± 0.6	20.25 (da)	NanjingU/Renshine, 2-term.
Perovskite/organic	23.4 ± 0.8	0.0552 (da)	NUS/SERIS, 2-term.
Abbreviations: (da), designated illumination area; (ap), aperture area; (t), total area.

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Table 2. The reported perovskite module stability test results for companies.

Organization	Test classification	Type	Result
Microquanta	IEC 61215/61730	Test sequence	Pass
GCL- Perovskite	Ball drop test	Individual	Pass

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Table 3. The perovskite production line statues from perovskite companies.

Organization	Capacity	Type	Status
Microquanta	120 MW	Single-junction	Full capacity production [19]
GCL- Perovskite	100 MW	Single-junction	Ramp-up [20]
Oxford PV	100 MW	Perovskite/silicon tandem	Ramp-up [21]
Wondersolar	200 MW	Carbon-based single-junction	Ramp-up [22]
Utmolight	150 MW	Single-junction	Equipment move-in [23]

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Table 4. Summary of flexible transparent electrodes.

Electrode	Sheet resistance (Ω sq⁻¹)	Optical transmittance (%)	Bending properties	References
ITO	10-15	85-90	Medium	Kumar and Zhou [205]
AZO	<10	>85	Good	Mutiari et al [206]
IZO	<10	>90	Medium	Lee et al [207]
IWO	∼35	>95	Good	Kim et al [208]
CNT	150-500	70-90	Good	Zhang et al [209]
Graphene	110-780	70-95	Good	Wang et al [210]
PEDOT:PSS	15-250	>80	Good	Lee et al [211]
PEDOT:PSS	15-250	>80	Good	Worfolk et al [212]
Metal nanowire	1-25	>90	Good	Chen et al [213]
Metal mesh	<2	>84	Good	Zhang et al [214]
UTMFs	<10	>82	Good	Li et al [215]

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Table 5. Properties of flexible polymer substrates.

Substrate	T_g (°C)	T_m (°C)	Density (g cm⁻³)	Water absorption	Dielectric coefficient	Solvent resistance	Dimensional stability
PET	70-110	115-258	1.39	0.4-0.6	3.0-3.8	Good	Good
PEN	120-155	269	1.36	0.2	—	Good	Good
PI	155-270	250-452	1.36-1.43	1.3-3.0	3.4	Good	Fair
PDMS	−125	−43	1.03	>0.1	2.7	Good	Good
PES	225	315-335	1.37	0.43	3.5	Good	Good
PC	150	267	1.2	0.4	3.0-3.2	Poor	Fair
T_g: glass-transition temperature; T_m: melting temperature.

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Table 6. Advances of F-PSMs via scalable fabrication methods (none spin-coating).

		Materials choice and fabrication methods
Year	Structure	Bottom electrode	ETL	Perovskite	HTL	Top electrode	Area (cm²)	PCE (%)	References
2015	PET/ITO/ZnO/Perovskite /P3HT/Ag	PET/ITO (commercial)	ZnO (slot-die coating)	Sequential roll-to-roll	P3HT (slot-die coating)	Ag (evaporation)	40	∼1	Hwang et al [245]
2019	MgF₂/Willow Glass/ITO/PTAA/Perovskite /C60/BCP/Cu	Willow Glass/ITO (RF-sputtering)	C60/BCP (thermal evaporation)	Blading-coating	PTAA (blade-coating)	Cu (evaporation)	42.9 (ap)	15.86	Dai et al [52]
2019	PET/PEDOT:PSS:CFE/PEDOT:PSS/Perovskite/PCBM/Ag	PEDOT:PSS:CFE/PET (slot-die coating via R2R)	PCBM (R2R slot-die coating)	R2R slot-die coating	PEDOT:PSS (R2R slot-die coating)	Ag (evaporation)	25 (ap)	10.9	Hu et al [219]
2020	Flexible-Substrate/ITO/F4-TCNQ:2T-NATA/Perovskite/C60/BCP/Ag	Flexible-Substrate/ITO (commercial)	C60/BCP (thermal evaporation)	Thermal evaporation	F4-TCNQ:2T-NATA (thermal evaporation)	Ag (evaporation)	16 (ac)	13.15	Lei et al [243]
2020	PET/ITO/PEDOT:EVA/perovskite/PCBM/BCP/Ag	PET/ITO (commercial)	PCBM/BCP (meniscus-coating)	Meniscus-coating	PEDOT:EVA	Ag (evaporation)	31.2	17.55	Meng et al [235]
2021	PET/ITO/PTAA/ Perovskite/ C60/BCP/Ag	PET/ITO (commercial)	C60/BCP (thermal evaporation)	N₂ assisted blade-coating	PTAA (blading-coating)	Ag (evaporation)	15.7 (ac)	10.5	Castriotta et al [244]
2021	PDMS/PEN/hc-PEDOT:PSS/PEDOT:PSS Al4083:EVA/ Perovskite/Di-g/PC61BM/ BCP/Ag/PDMS	PDMS/PEN/hc-PEDOT:PSS (meniscus-coating)	PC61BM/BCP (meniscus-coating)	Meniscus-coating + vacuum oven annealing	PEDOT:PSS:EVA (meniscus-coating)	Ag (evaporation)	21.82 (ac)	15.01	Meng et al [169]
2021	PEN/hc-PEDOT:PSS/NiOx/ Perovskite/ PC61BM/BCP/Ag	PEN/hc-PEDOT:PSS (slot-die coating via R2R)	PC61BM/BCP (meniscus-coating)	Meniscus-coating	NiOx (meniscus coating)	Ag (evaporation)	15 (ac)	16.15	Wang et al [241]
2021	PEN/hc-PEDOT:PSS/NiOx/Perovskite/PCBM/Ag	PEN/hc-PEDOT:PSS (meniscus-coating)	PCBM/BCP (meniscus-coating)	Meniscus-coating	NiOx (meniscus-coating)	Ag (evaporation)	25 (ac)	14.74	Yang et al [246]
2022	PEN/ITO/Bio-IL/Perovskite/ PC61BM/BCP/Ag	PEN/ITO (commercial)	PC61BM/BCP (meniscus-coating)	Meniscus-coating	Bio-IL (meniscus-coating)	Ag (evaporation)	14.63 (ac)	16.87	Fan et al [247]
Abbreviations: (ap), aperture area; (ac), active area.

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